1.INTRODUCTION
2.CH1: KINGDOM OF YUGOSLAVIA AND ITS PROBLEMS
3.CH 2: WW2 AND DESTRUCTION OF FIRST YUGOSLAVIA
4.CH 3: SECOND YUGOSLAVIA, SOCIALIST YUGOSLAVIA
5.CH 4: DESTRUCTION OF SECOND YUGOSLAVIA
6.CONCLUSION
7.REFERENCES
BOOK ANALYSIS
1. Introduction
The history of Yugoslavia is a complex process shaped by unification efforts, ethnic tensions and foreign interventions. From the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918 to the Socialist Federal Yugoslavia established under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, the country has experienced significant political, social and economic transformations. However, increasing nationalism, economic crises and political instability led to the disintegration of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. This article examines the process from the birth of Yugoslavia to its collapse and how nationalism, foreign interventions and economic problems shaped the fate of the country.
2. CH1: Kingdom of Yugoslavia and Its Problems
First Yugoslavia
The lands of Yugoslavia have been under the influence of various civilizations such as the Roman and Byzantine Empires since the 7th century. These lands also served as a bridge between East and West and were called "the land of the Southern Slavs".
The idea of unification of the South Slavs played a crucial role, but we should know that the unification progress was a problematic one due to tensions between different nationalities and the interventions of external powers. The idea of Yugoslavism, which means the unification of the South Slavs, firstly emerged among the Croat intellectuals in the 1830’s. This idea spread among the Croats, Serbs and Slovens late the 18 th century. This idea first became a political reality with the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes after World War I. The name of the state was changed to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929. This kingdom involved the territories of recently Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. This was the first succession of Yugoslav nations unification under the one state.
The insistence of Serbia and the Serbian royal family created a unitary centralized constitutional monarchy regime during the process of its establishment. The monarchy was given to the Serbian Karadordevic dynasty. The majority of the government, parliament, bureaucracy and military were in the hands of Serbs. The power of the Serbs in every important level was bothering other nations in Yugoslavia. The greatest opposition came from the Croats who were the country's second largest ethnic group. Croats strongly demanded that the centralist unitary structure of the state be transformed into a federation. An agreement was reached between Croats and the Serbs. According to this agreement, Serbs gave a wide political autonomy to Croatia in the borders of Yugoslavia and a short temper solution was found. However, this agreement did not last long. In April 1941, the fascist German-Italian alliance invaded Yugoslavia and the country was entered into war.
Era of Josip Broz Tito and Federalism in Yugoslavia
Josip Broz Tito was the most important leader that unified Yugoslavia. He ruled the state between 1945 to 1980 which was his death. During this period, there were significant changes in the political, economic, and social structure of Yugoslavia. YCP and Tito were formed in Yugoslavia on a federal basis to fight against nationalism and try to keep the nations. Each federated republic had its own legislative, executive and judicial bodies and enjoyed very broad socio-cultural autonomy. This autonomy aimed to ensure that each nation exercised its cultural rights, especially the right to education in its own language. Tito tried to prevent nationalist politicians from organizing and rising. However, after his death in 1980, nationalist movements gained strength again. The principle of "brotherhood and unity" aimed to promote equality and solidarity between different ethnic groups. However, despite this ideology, ethnic tensions and nationalisms continued to exist within the country to all effort. Tito positioned Yugoslavia as a balance between the Eastern and Western blocs and played an important role in the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. This movement brought together countries that did not want to be between the two blocks during the Cold War and increased the importance of Yugoslavia in the international sphere. Yugoslavia embraced a socialist economic system, but also included some elements of a market economy. The country has tried to eliminate regional inequalities and achieve economic development. However, after Tito's death, the economic crisis strengthened and contributed to the dissolution of the country. After the death of Tito, the country entered a process of dissolution which would result in the breakdown of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. Croatia and Slovenia were the first states that declared independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. This declared independence would lead to enormous civil conflicts. Later Macedonia in 1991, Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1992, Montenegro and Serbia in 2006, and Kosovo in 2008.
It is stated that Serbian nationalism, as well as the conflicts between different ethnic and religious groups in the country, played a crucial role in the dissolution of Yugoslavia. In particular, Slobodan Milosevic's leadership and policies in Serbia led to reactions in other federal states. The nickname of Slobodan Milosevic was ‘Serbian Butcher’.
Also, Croatian nationalism was also effective in the dissolution of Yugoslavia as much as Serbia. The Croatian nationalist movement, led by Franjo Tudjman, played an important role in Croatia's independence, and then became effective in the Bosnian War with its "Greater Croatia" ideal.
We should emphasize the failure of the European Community (EC) to stop the civil war. It has been stated that the EU was lacking to American policies during this period and this situation caused genocide of thousands of people.
The lands of Yugoslavia have been under the influence of various civilizations such as the Roman and Byzantine Empires since the 7th century. These lands also served as a bridge between East and West and were called "the land of the Southern Slavs".
The idea of unification of the South Slavs played a crucial role, but we should know that the unification progress was a problematic one due to tensions between different nationalities and the interventions of external powers. The idea of Yugoslavism, which means the unification of the South Slavs, firstly emerged among the Croat intellectuals in the 1830’s. This idea spread among the Croats, Serbs and Slovens late the 18 th century. This idea first became a political reality with the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes after World War I. The name of the state was changed to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929. This kingdom involved the territories of recently Serbia, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Montenegro, and Kosovo. This was the first succession of Yugoslav nations unification under the one state.
The insistence of Serbia and the Serbian royal family created a unitary centralized constitutional monarchy regime during the process of its establishment. The monarchy was given to the Serbian Karadordevic dynasty. The majority of the government, parliament, bureaucracy and military were in the hands of Serbs. The power of the Serbs in every important level was bothering other nations in Yugoslavia. The greatest opposition came from the Croats who were the country's second largest ethnic group. Croats strongly demanded that the centralist unitary structure of the state be transformed into a federation. An agreement was reached between Croats and the Serbs. According to this agreement, Serbs gave a wide political autonomy to Croatia in the borders of Yugoslavia and a short temper solution was found. However, this agreement did not last long. In April 1941, the fascist German-Italian alliance invaded Yugoslavia and the country was entered into war.
Era of Josip Broz Tito and Federalism in Yugoslavia
Josip Broz Tito was the most important leader that unified Yugoslavia. He ruled the state between 1945 to 1980 which was his death. During this period, there were significant changes in the political, economic, and social structure of Yugoslavia. YCP and Tito were formed in Yugoslavia on a federal basis to fight against nationalism and try to keep the nations. Each federated republic had its own legislative, executive and judicial bodies and enjoyed very broad socio-cultural autonomy. This autonomy aimed to ensure that each nation exercised its cultural rights, especially the right to education in its own language. Tito tried to prevent nationalist politicians from organizing and rising. However, after his death in 1980, nationalist movements gained strength again. The principle of "brotherhood and unity" aimed to promote equality and solidarity between different ethnic groups. However, despite this ideology, ethnic tensions and nationalisms continued to exist within the country to all effort. Tito positioned Yugoslavia as a balance between the Eastern and Western blocs and played an important role in the establishment of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961. This movement brought together countries that did not want to be between the two blocks during the Cold War and increased the importance of Yugoslavia in the international sphere. Yugoslavia embraced a socialist economic system, but also included some elements of a market economy. The country has tried to eliminate regional inequalities and achieve economic development. However, after Tito's death, the economic crisis strengthened and contributed to the dissolution of the country. After the death of Tito, the country entered a process of dissolution which would result in the breakdown of Yugoslavia in the 1990s. Croatia and Slovenia were the first states that declared independence from Yugoslavia in 1991. This declared independence would lead to enormous civil conflicts. Later Macedonia in 1991, Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1992, Montenegro and Serbia in 2006, and Kosovo in 2008.
It is stated that Serbian nationalism, as well as the conflicts between different ethnic and religious groups in the country, played a crucial role in the dissolution of Yugoslavia. In particular, Slobodan Milosevic's leadership and policies in Serbia led to reactions in other federal states. The nickname of Slobodan Milosevic was ‘Serbian Butcher’.
Also, Croatian nationalism was also effective in the dissolution of Yugoslavia as much as Serbia. The Croatian nationalist movement, led by Franjo Tudjman, played an important role in Croatia's independence, and then became effective in the Bosnian War with its "Greater Croatia" ideal.
We should emphasize the failure of the European Community (EC) to stop the civil war. It has been stated that the EU was lacking to American policies during this period and this situation caused genocide of thousands of people.
3. CH 2: WW2 and Destruction of First Yugoslavia
The day of April 6 1941, German aircraft bombed Belgrade which was the first concrete action to indicate the beginning of the occupation of Yugoslavia in World War II. On April 17, Yugoslavia surrendered and the country was dismembered by Germany and Italy. Germany occupied Serbia and Banat, while annexing northern Slovenia. Italy received southern Slovenia, Dalmatia and Montenegro. In Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established. Kosovo and western Macedonia were given to Albania, which was under Italian protection. Bulgaria took eastern Macedonia, while Hungary entered the region between the Tisza, Danube and Mur rivers.
The sovereignty that Croatia had been waiting for a long time was just a nationalistic dream. Both Hitler and Mussolini viewed the country as an occupied territory and drew a border through their territory. Berlin used its diplomatic corps and the German General Representative to exert great political influence over racial, economic, and military policy. In the Protocols of Rome, Pavelić was forced to abandon a large part of the Dalmatian coast and the Bay of Kotor to Italy on 18 May 1941.
The German military government was established in Serbia under the Milan Nedić regime. By controlling the mines and railways in Serbia, the Germans incorporated the country into their war economy. The Germans also used great violence to suppress resistance in the areas they occupied. The German army mass executed civilians as "retaliation" for the attacks. The Italians also used similar violence in the regions they occupied. Anti-Slavic sentiments and colonial experiences in Africa shaped Italian officers' attitudes towards Balkan such as inferior people.
During the occupation process, three armed forces emerged in Yugoslavia who were the Communist Party of Yugoslavia Partisan Army (CPY), the Croatian Ustasha Army and the Serbian Chetnik Army. There was a violent civil war because of the three distinct nations. With the help of Germany, the Independent Croatian State was established in 1941 and continued ıntil the 1945 due to Communist Party. Ustasha armed forces carried out ethnic cleansing of Serbs, Jews, Roma and Bosnians throughout the war. Yugoslavia established not only against invader commanders but also Ustashas and Chetniks.
Ustasha Movement
It means that extreme right ideology is based on Croatian discrimination. The Ustasha Movement was influenced by Italian and German fascism and it appealed in the 19 th century which focused on Greater Croatia. It includes anti-Serb, anti-communist and anti-liberalism. The goal was the homogenous Croatia state which includes the areas of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and some parts of Vojvovina. The movement used the tools of leader principle, violence and paramilitary units. In 1927, after the prohibition of Croatian nationalism by King Alexander, many party members exiled abroad and established an underground organization which was fascist and discriminative under the leadership of Ante Pavelics.
After the German-Italian occupation, the Ustasha movement found a chance to establish the Greater Croatia dream which contains an ethnically homogenous state. Croatian fascist imposed a gradual campaign against Serbs, Jews, Romans and Bosnians. The Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was created in the areas in Croatia and Bosnia Herzegovina. The Ustasha Movement created the Independent State of Croatia by the assistance of Germany which only sustained until 1945. This regime applied the ethnic cleansing policy to the Jews, Serbs, Romans and Bosnias. However, to the Ustashas, Pavelic was a national hero and the Ustasha Organization was the prior form of future Greater Croatia. Also they stated that the mass massacres were made up by the Serbs and communist-titoist regime which aimed at the humiliation of Croatian nationalism.
Later, Franjo Tudjman and the Croatian Democratic Union embraced the Ustasha Movement. Tudjman also regarded Ustasha as the organization of the nation and Pavelic as a national hero for the Croats. The Ustasha facism revived in the 1990’s.
The Chetnik Movement
The Chetnik Movement was the most important and influential action for Serbian nationalism. It actually means bands of irregular guerrilla fighters against the Ustasha Movement. These bands were established under Draza Mihailovic. The aim of the Chetnik Movement was Greater Serbia after the liberation of the state from Germans and Italians. It was also anti-Croat, anti-communist and anti-Bosniak which means all the obstacles to the establishment of Greater Serbia. They aimed to reestablish the old Serbian governance structure against the internal and external conflicts. They planned the ethnic base forced mobility of approximately 70% of Yugoslavia. The Chetniks saw themselves as saviors of Serb nation such as the Ushashas in the Croat nation. First conflict started with the partisans which turned into a civil war in 1941. With the cooperation with the Italian invader officials, they established territorial autonomous organs. In the 1980’s, the Chetniks arose as the modern Serbian resistance movement. They revitalized as the savior in the popular culture.
Yugoslav Communist Party and the Partisan Movement
The Yugoslav Communist Party (YCP) played a very important role in the political history of Yugoslavia and was instrumental in both the founding and dissolution of the country. They embraced the aim of uniting the South Slavic peoples and eliminating capitalism. In its early years, the party saw the Yugoslavian state as a product of Western imperialism and claimed that the Serbian bourgeoisie was oppressing the South Slavic peoples. In the third congress in 1924, YCP accepted that Serbs, Croats and Slovenes were different peoples and defended the right of all peoples to self-determination. In 1935, in the face of the danger of fascist aggression, the YCP changed its stance towards supporting the existence of Yugoslavia and establishing a federal state on the model of the Soviet Union. YCP played a crucial role in the fight against Nazi occupation during World War II and organized the resistance by establishing the Partisan Army. After the war, the YCP established the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito.
YCP was the first real party in Yugoslavia. Firstly they were against any level of nationality that damages Yugoslavia. They stated that the conflict between Croats and Serbs was a pattern that weakened the idea of Yugoslavia as a state. Secondly, all the members of YCP came from different ethnicities and nationalities. The party for all Yugoslavia not a particular nation. Thirdly they understand that every nation has the self determination right in the socialist and federal Yugoslavia with the conflict between Croats and Serbs.
We can mention that the Partisan Movement was the first real resistance against Axis occupation. The movement did not focus on particular nations such as the YCP, all Yugoslav nations were part of the resistance as one. The most important partisans fought against occupying forces without their guards down and never collaborated with the occupied forces unlike Chetniks or Ustashas. They not only fought with the occupiers but also with the Chetniks and Ustashas to protect the state. Lastly the Partisan Movement, unlike the Yugoslav government in exile, did not comply with London in order to benefit.
During WW2, the party demanded the neutrality of Yugoslavia from the Cvetkovic-Macek government. They run a campaign to protest the Tripartite Pact. The party yielded to establish an alliance with the USSR. The goal was firstly the liberation of the state then achieving a socialist regime in Yugoslavia. The party fought against Axis powers, the Chetniks, the Ustashas and puppet Nedic government which was governed by the German assistance.
People's Liberation Committees were established as temporary state bodies in the occupied territories, as an important part of the partisan movement in Yugoslavia. Their main purpose is to maintain order in the areas liberated from occupation, provide supplies, redistribute lands and provide necessities to people. The committees were seen as a means of legitimizing the socialist revolution and transforming Yugoslavia into an egalitarian workers and peasants state. People's Liberation Committees prepared a ground for upper political organs such as Anti Fascist Council of People (AVNOJ).
The Partisan Leader Tito published an article about the National Question at the end of 1942. He emphasized the national self determination of all nations such as Croats, Slovens, Serbs, Macedons, Albanians and Muslims. This perspective solved the concern of the Serbian hegemony over the Yugoslavia state structure. The principle of brotherhood and unity embraced by the party which aims the integration of different ethnic groups under the one roof. The developments on Bihac played an important role in shaping political structure in the future. The vision of federal Yugoslavia streghetened by these perspectives under the leadership of Tito.
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The sovereignty that Croatia had been waiting for a long time was just a nationalistic dream. Both Hitler and Mussolini viewed the country as an occupied territory and drew a border through their territory. Berlin used its diplomatic corps and the German General Representative to exert great political influence over racial, economic, and military policy. In the Protocols of Rome, Pavelić was forced to abandon a large part of the Dalmatian coast and the Bay of Kotor to Italy on 18 May 1941.
The German military government was established in Serbia under the Milan Nedić regime. By controlling the mines and railways in Serbia, the Germans incorporated the country into their war economy. The Germans also used great violence to suppress resistance in the areas they occupied. The German army mass executed civilians as "retaliation" for the attacks. The Italians also used similar violence in the regions they occupied. Anti-Slavic sentiments and colonial experiences in Africa shaped Italian officers' attitudes towards Balkan such as inferior people.
During the occupation process, three armed forces emerged in Yugoslavia who were the Communist Party of Yugoslavia Partisan Army (CPY), the Croatian Ustasha Army and the Serbian Chetnik Army. There was a violent civil war because of the three distinct nations. With the help of Germany, the Independent Croatian State was established in 1941 and continued ıntil the 1945 due to Communist Party. Ustasha armed forces carried out ethnic cleansing of Serbs, Jews, Roma and Bosnians throughout the war. Yugoslavia established not only against invader commanders but also Ustashas and Chetniks.
Ustasha Movement
It means that extreme right ideology is based on Croatian discrimination. The Ustasha Movement was influenced by Italian and German fascism and it appealed in the 19 th century which focused on Greater Croatia. It includes anti-Serb, anti-communist and anti-liberalism. The goal was the homogenous Croatia state which includes the areas of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro and some parts of Vojvovina. The movement used the tools of leader principle, violence and paramilitary units. In 1927, after the prohibition of Croatian nationalism by King Alexander, many party members exiled abroad and established an underground organization which was fascist and discriminative under the leadership of Ante Pavelics.
After the German-Italian occupation, the Ustasha movement found a chance to establish the Greater Croatia dream which contains an ethnically homogenous state. Croatian fascist imposed a gradual campaign against Serbs, Jews, Romans and Bosnians. The Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was created in the areas in Croatia and Bosnia Herzegovina. The Ustasha Movement created the Independent State of Croatia by the assistance of Germany which only sustained until 1945. This regime applied the ethnic cleansing policy to the Jews, Serbs, Romans and Bosnias. However, to the Ustashas, Pavelic was a national hero and the Ustasha Organization was the prior form of future Greater Croatia. Also they stated that the mass massacres were made up by the Serbs and communist-titoist regime which aimed at the humiliation of Croatian nationalism.
Later, Franjo Tudjman and the Croatian Democratic Union embraced the Ustasha Movement. Tudjman also regarded Ustasha as the organization of the nation and Pavelic as a national hero for the Croats. The Ustasha facism revived in the 1990’s.
The Chetnik Movement
The Chetnik Movement was the most important and influential action for Serbian nationalism. It actually means bands of irregular guerrilla fighters against the Ustasha Movement. These bands were established under Draza Mihailovic. The aim of the Chetnik Movement was Greater Serbia after the liberation of the state from Germans and Italians. It was also anti-Croat, anti-communist and anti-Bosniak which means all the obstacles to the establishment of Greater Serbia. They aimed to reestablish the old Serbian governance structure against the internal and external conflicts. They planned the ethnic base forced mobility of approximately 70% of Yugoslavia. The Chetniks saw themselves as saviors of Serb nation such as the Ushashas in the Croat nation. First conflict started with the partisans which turned into a civil war in 1941. With the cooperation with the Italian invader officials, they established territorial autonomous organs. In the 1980’s, the Chetniks arose as the modern Serbian resistance movement. They revitalized as the savior in the popular culture.
Yugoslav Communist Party and the Partisan Movement
The Yugoslav Communist Party (YCP) played a very important role in the political history of Yugoslavia and was instrumental in both the founding and dissolution of the country. They embraced the aim of uniting the South Slavic peoples and eliminating capitalism. In its early years, the party saw the Yugoslavian state as a product of Western imperialism and claimed that the Serbian bourgeoisie was oppressing the South Slavic peoples. In the third congress in 1924, YCP accepted that Serbs, Croats and Slovenes were different peoples and defended the right of all peoples to self-determination. In 1935, in the face of the danger of fascist aggression, the YCP changed its stance towards supporting the existence of Yugoslavia and establishing a federal state on the model of the Soviet Union. YCP played a crucial role in the fight against Nazi occupation during World War II and organized the resistance by establishing the Partisan Army. After the war, the YCP established the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito.
YCP was the first real party in Yugoslavia. Firstly they were against any level of nationality that damages Yugoslavia. They stated that the conflict between Croats and Serbs was a pattern that weakened the idea of Yugoslavia as a state. Secondly, all the members of YCP came from different ethnicities and nationalities. The party for all Yugoslavia not a particular nation. Thirdly they understand that every nation has the self determination right in the socialist and federal Yugoslavia with the conflict between Croats and Serbs.
We can mention that the Partisan Movement was the first real resistance against Axis occupation. The movement did not focus on particular nations such as the YCP, all Yugoslav nations were part of the resistance as one. The most important partisans fought against occupying forces without their guards down and never collaborated with the occupied forces unlike Chetniks or Ustashas. They not only fought with the occupiers but also with the Chetniks and Ustashas to protect the state. Lastly the Partisan Movement, unlike the Yugoslav government in exile, did not comply with London in order to benefit.
During WW2, the party demanded the neutrality of Yugoslavia from the Cvetkovic-Macek government. They run a campaign to protest the Tripartite Pact. The party yielded to establish an alliance with the USSR. The goal was firstly the liberation of the state then achieving a socialist regime in Yugoslavia. The party fought against Axis powers, the Chetniks, the Ustashas and puppet Nedic government which was governed by the German assistance.
People's Liberation Committees were established as temporary state bodies in the occupied territories, as an important part of the partisan movement in Yugoslavia. Their main purpose is to maintain order in the areas liberated from occupation, provide supplies, redistribute lands and provide necessities to people. The committees were seen as a means of legitimizing the socialist revolution and transforming Yugoslavia into an egalitarian workers and peasants state. People's Liberation Committees prepared a ground for upper political organs such as Anti Fascist Council of People (AVNOJ).
The Partisan Leader Tito published an article about the National Question at the end of 1942. He emphasized the national self determination of all nations such as Croats, Slovens, Serbs, Macedons, Albanians and Muslims. This perspective solved the concern of the Serbian hegemony over the Yugoslavia state structure. The principle of brotherhood and unity embraced by the party which aims the integration of different ethnic groups under the one roof. The developments on Bihac played an important role in shaping political structure in the future. The vision of federal Yugoslavia streghetened by these perspectives under the leadership of Tito.
Click for more.
